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Le monde est plein de gens qui vous déclarent qu'une troisième guerre mondiale aboutirait fatalement à la ruine totale de notre civilisation. Vous n'en entendrez pas moins la plupart d'entre eux vous parler tout aussitôt d'une guerre pour le salut de cette même civilisation. De cette contradiction bien peu ont conscience et cela prouve combien, chez l'immense majorité de nos contemporains, le slogan affectif fait obstacle à une vision lucide et fondée en raison de la réalité. Une telle situation doit être tirée au clair. Aussi nous faut-il avant tout nous demander quels concepts se cachent derrière les mots et quelles réalités derrière les concepts. Les termes abstraits qui jouent un rôle de premier plan dans l'arsenal de la propagande moderne civilisation, liberté, démocratie, etc., ont ceci de particulier qu'ils sont susceptibles des interprétations les plus diverses. C'est là sans doute l'un des motifs pour lesquels ou les emploie de toutes parts si volontiers; chacun y peut loger ce qui lui convient. Le plus confus est Peut-être le concept de civilisation. Cela vient sans doute pour une part de ce qu'il appartient au domaine des sciences de l'esprit et celui-ci touche la plu part des hommes moins directement que ne le font les débats quasi-quotidiens sur le régime politique et économique. Mais l'ambiguïté du mot civilisation vient également de ce que, même dans le langage scientifique, soit contenu ne cesse jamais de rester fluide.
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"The present work is the result of more than twenty years labour in a limited medical department of biology. It demonstrates once more the truth of the scientific principle, that the truth or falsity of any theory or working hypothesis becomes more and more demonstrable the further its application is attempted in the explanation of new lines of facts. The truth of the degeneracy doctrine had forced itself on the writer long before its popular apotheosis under Lombroso and Nordau, because it alone sufficed for an explanation of constitutional and local defects (encountered in a seemingly limited specialty of medicine), which local causes failed entirely to explain. The investigations thereon resultant have appeared in medical and dental journals for the past two decades. The present work is chiefly based on these researches"--Preface. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved).
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For centuries, humans have tried to explain the complex process of vision and find effective treatments for eye diseases. Perhaps the oldest surviving record of ancient ophthalmic practices is the Babylonian code of Hammurabi that over 4000 years ago, mentioned fees for eye surgery and penalties for unsuccessful operations that led to loss of the eye. Babylonian medicine was controlled by priests who directed the work of skilled surgeons. The earliest records of Egyptian medicine date from almost the same time. The Ebers Papyrus, dating back to more than 3500 years ago is a superbly preserved document in which a section outlines a relatively advanced system of diagnosis and treatment of various ocular pathologies. The text reveals that ancient Greek and Egyptian physicians prescribed liver juice for night blindness. This was obtained from roasted and crushed ox liver. We now know that their prescription contained a remarkable amount of vitamin A. It was only within the last century, however, that we have recognized the importance of vitamin A to the function of photoreceptors and visual acuity and that its deficiency can result in night blindness. Egyptian ophthalmological practices were held in high esteem in the ancient world and so were their medical institutes, called peri-ankh, which existed since the first dynasty. Herodotus, the fifth century BC Greek historian, comments on the specialization of the physicians: Each physician treats just one disease.
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