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Autor v německy psané studii klade otázku, co se odehrálo v kruhu Ježíšových přívrženců po Ježíšově ukřižování. Víme, že učedníci Ježíše po jeho zatčení opustili, s největší pravděpodobností odešli zpět do Galileje. Je obecně známou skutečností, že v Jeruzalémě vznikl záhy okruh Ježíšových přívrženců, v němž získal přední postavení Ježíšův rodný bratr Jakub. K tomuto kruhu se posléze připojila z Galileje se navrátivší skupina apokalyptického radikalismu nejbližších Ježíšových učedníků. Odlišného zaměření byla v Jeruzalémě skupina kolem Štěpána. Samostatnou kapitolu tvoří Pavlovo pochopení Ježíšova kříže a vzkříšení, zachycené v Pavlově formuli víry, I. Korintským 15,1-3. Mezi Jakubem a Pavlem došlo posléze k tvrdému sporu o otázku, zda křesťané nežidovského původu jsou povinni dodržovat ustanovení židovského zákona. Kardinální otázka ovšem zní, co se odehrálo v prvních dnech, týdnech, bezprostředně po Ježíšově ukřižování? Autor vyslovuje argumentovanou hypotézu, že zvolání „maranata“ v galilejském kruhu apokalyptických radikálů z Ježíšova nejbližšího okruhu, bylo onou první jiskrou, která dala do pohybu proces vznikání křesťanské víry. Tuto hypotézu argumentuje řadou odkazů, že zvolání bylo známo již v Kumránu, odkud je doloženo v Didaché. To znamená, že nikoli víra ve vzkříšení dala vzniknout očekávání Ježíšova příchodu, návratu, parusie, nýbrž vizionářské očekávání parusie, provázené zvoláním maranata, dalo vzniknout víře ve vzkříšení. V této nejstarší vrstvě nelze ještě označit očekávání parusie jako očekávání druhého Kristova příchodu. Tam očekávání posouvá až Pavel, pro kterého již Ježíšův kříž byl vykupitelským dějstvím poslaného božího Syna. Mottem Fundovy knihy Ježíš a mýtus o Kristu (Praha, Karolinum 2007, 366 stran) je Popperova věta, že i velmi smělé hypotézy, které se nepotvrdily, poponášejí dopředu naše poznání.

Theology and Religion --- faith --- religion

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In this study, in particular, the subject of what qasams mean in the integrity of the Qur'ān is discussed in the context of the Surah.In the introduction of the fourpart study, the subject was examined in terms of scope and method. The first chapter focused on the sameness and difference of concepts such as qasam, oath and hilf within the conceptual framework. In the linguistic framework, the letters used for Qasam are explained; the oath with him (muqsamūn bih) and the answer to the oath (muqsamūn alayh). Again, in the first chapter "zahir" and "muzmar" were explained from the types of vows. In the second part of the study, the Qasam tradition in Arabic language and culture in the pre-Islamic period was examined. Among the subjects of the oath in ignorance are Allah, the Kaaba, idols, time and many natural beings. In the pre-Islamic period, poets, wizards, oracles, along with expressions of vows to obtain material benefits, said mysterious words that made people believe and turn to themselves. In particular, oracles left their oaths in mystery because they expressed what was sworn with them according to their beliefs and cultures but did not say the answer. In the third chapter, the forms of qasam in the Mekkī-Madanī Mekkī and Madanī surahs were compared, and in this context, it was found that the qasams in the Mekkī surahs are an example of open vows in general. In this chapter, it is also stated that Allah swears by his person and adjectives, as well as by oath to both observant and exchange beings. In this context, it has also been determined that the qasams in Madanī surahs constitute an example of closed oaths. It is certain that the oaths constitute an introduction to the answer to the oath, as well as noting that the matters that are sworn with it are important for people. Because vows are only completed and understood by their answers. An unanswered oath turns into an action that is unclear why it was sworn. In the third chapter, there are also related examples of those who are sworn in the Qur'ān in the style of "qath and those who constitute answers to the oath. In addition, examples of vows in Qur'ānic stories are also discussed in this section. In the fourth chapter the possible causes, goals, consequences of the bowl, and the oath of Allah were thinned, and in this chapter, the fiqh dimension of the bowl was also pointed out. Those who believe that Allah Most High will not swear by beings have suggested that this cannot be considered for Allah, since the oath aims to glorify only those who are sworn. Allah's oath to beings is to draw attention to the benefit and harm of the beings who are sworn. In addition, it means that Allah swears to different beings and swears to him over those beings. Because those who say that there is the word "Rab" at the beginning of the objects swore understood the oath to fig as "by the Rab of Tin". As a result, it was concluded that the oath was a means of linguistic communication and interaction to inculcate trust and trust between people and societies from the beginning of its history. In the period of ignorance, people swore an oath to anything they considered sacred, while in the Islamic period it was requested that the oath be made only to Allah. During the Islamic period, provisions on oaths were made, they were asked not to swear unless necessary, and Muslims were not welcome to swear unnecessarily. In this context, a false oath was considered a great sin.

Language studies --- Theology and Religion --- Islam studies --- Qurʼan.

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Ова књига представља прилагођен и делимично измењен текст магистарског рада Обредно-релишјска пракса и етницитет верника српских православних парохија у Калифорнији, одбрањеног у децембру 2002. године на Одељењу за етнологију и антропологију Филозофског факултета Универзитета у Београду. Рад је настао као део пројекта Етнографског института САНУ број 2157: Традиционална култура Срба — системи представа, обреда и социјалних институција, који финансира Министарство за науку и технологију Републике Србије. Желела бих да се захвалим овом министарству чији сам стипендиста била током постдипломских студија, као и Министарству културе које је финансирало моје путне тропжове до Лос Анђелеса. Захваљујем се свим колегама у Етнографском институту САНУ чијим сам се искуством користила приликом израде рада. Најсрдачније се захваљујем мојим рецензентима академику Димитрију Стефановићу, др Душану Дрљачи, др Младени Прелић на корисним саветима и сугестијама, као и ментору проф. др Бранку Ћупурдији. Посебну благодарност дугујем епископу шумадијском господину Јовану, који је током мог боравка у Калифорнији у јесен 2000. године био владика западноамерички и који ми је дао дозволу за истраживање у његовој епархији. Желим да се захвалим и свештенству западноамеричке епархије које ми је помогло да прикупим материјал за израду овог рада, посебно јерејима Блашку Параклису из Оринџ Каун-тија, Петру Јовановићу из Сан Габријела, Марку Матићу из Сан Франциска и његовој супрузи Весни, као и свим испитаницима - људима добре воље који су учествовали у истраживању и допринели стварању ове књиге. Дугујем посебну захвалност др Андреју Симићу, професору антропологије на Универзитету Јужне Калифорније у Лос Анђелесу и проф. др Димитрију Ђорђевићу, са Универзитета у Санта Барбари (Калифорнија), члану САНУ. Највећу захвалност дугујем мојој сестри Татјани и њеном супругу Зорану Миловановић, који су сносили све трошкове мог боравка и истраживања у Америци - без њихове љубави и разумевања реализација овог подухвата била би немогућа. Истинску и усрдну подршку и у овом послу пружили су ми моји родитељи, којима неизмерно благодарим на помоћи и стрпљењу.

Christian Theology and Religion --- History --- Anthropology --- Social Sciences --- Customs / Folklore --- History of Church(es) --- Sociology --- Recent History (1900 till today) --- Theology and Religion --- Cultural Anthropology / Ethnology --- Family and social welfare --- Eastern Orthodoxy --- Migration Studies

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The aim of the presented collection of 29 chapters and essays is to sketch a comprehensive picture of Slovak society, reflecting the interactions between its political and cultural elites, as well as the coherence of historiography and historical consciousness in the 20th century. It might be stressed that these relations weren’t static, although in their frames, some resistant stereotypes arose which are still very popular in some parts of Slovak society. The stereotypes, auto-stereotypes and myths never failed to exist; just the contrary – they were going through a process of specific evolution, influenced by numerous fundamental, state-political and constitutional changes, that attended the life of Slovak society in the past century. These changes, or better, ruptures with global social impact had not only positive, but also – and this seems to be the majority of the cases – negative consequences for the situation of particular generations living in Slovakia. Simultaneously, their determined all spheres of cultural life of Slovak society, much like the Slovak historiography influencing both its internal development and its perception by the public. The presented work is divided into four thematic parts. First of them is dealing with both the direct and the indirect impact of political events and decisions taken by the administration on citizens, i.e. particular parts of society. This is the reason, why the tragic issue of the so-called social engineering and Holocaust is also taken into consideration. The author is supposing, that the discrimination and persecution of certain groups of population defined by their nationality, religious, racial or class identity afflicted not only individual victims, but, taking into account its global impact, it was a tragedy for the whole society. In particular it devastated the moral, cultural and religious values of the society and its constitutional consciousness. Culture also suffered by these socio-political processes. The culture and its prominent representatives enjoyed a specific position within the public life in Slovakia, since they were either substituting the absenting “national policy” or they were an active part of this policy – representing and defending universal ideals of humanity proclaimed by themselves or, in other cases, representing the political elites. This contradicted engagement and existing intellectual disunity were symptomatic especially during the existence of non-democratic, i.e. totalitarian political regimes, which afflicted the most part of the decades of Slovak history in the 20th century. As a logical consequence, it resulted not only in disappointment and frustration of Slovak cultural elites, but also in lost of confidence by the citizens in what they have represented. The situation of the Slovak historiography that, as a professional scientific discipline and in its institutional form was going through a process of intensive development just in the frames of communist regime was some kind similar. Just as the culture, the Slovak historiography was also strongly influenced and eventually deformed by the political reality. Slovak professional historiography was facing two main challenges: on the one hand it had to reflect scientific problems and questions and, on the other hand, there was a necessity of defending its own social status and position within the social hierarchy. This position only partly resulted from the scientific outputs of the Slovak historiography, since the role it had to play was strictly defined by the communist state. During that time, the Slovak historiography was going through a difficult development including hopes, unfulfilled illusions, disappointments, disgraceful moral and professional failures, but also happier stages such as significant achievements or civil resistance against the political regime and its leading figures. From today’s perspective, taking into account these phenomenons, the biggest detriment the Slovak historiography had to suffer seems to be the multiple interruption of natural continuity of its development and the visible lack of confidence on the side of citizens that it is permanently trying to regain. On the other hand it should be pointed out that in spite of unfavorable political and social conditions in the past the Slovak professional historiography achieved remarkable scientific results that allowed, after 1989, to be a part of European scientific community. Fourth thematic part of the presented book is dedicated to chosen historical personalities playing significant role in the modern history of Slovakia. Also reflected are chosen historians, which in their professional career and work were able to harmonize their scientific abilities with their civic attitudes, regardless of the risks.

Christian Theology and Religion --- History --- Anthropology --- Social Sciences --- Cultural history --- Political history --- Social history --- Recent History (1900 till today) --- Special Historiographies: --- Theology and Religion --- Culture and social structure --- History of Communism --- Slovakia --- History.

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Since in our opinion ethnic identity is an important problem in the study of the complex issues of assimilation and ethnicity, we have tried to determine to what extent and why the Serbian emigrants in Chicago have preserved their ethnic identity and what have been the forms and factors of its manifestation in the multinational environment of Chicago. As little attention has been paid to this problem so far, we collected the most important data during the field research by combining participatory observation, interviewing and casual conversation, although we also used all the available literature, statistical sources (census, etc.) and the emigrants’ publications (newspapers, commemorative volumes, calendars, bulletins, etc.). The Serbian emigrations to Chicago have had all the characteristics of the emigrations of other Yugoslav nations to America. They began at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, and they have been taking place with changing intensity ever since. Therefore this paper covers three generations of Serbian emigrants. There have been three waves of emigration, differing in the region, time and cause of emigration and the socioeconomic characteristics of the emigrants. The first-wave emigrants had come to Chicago until World War Two for economic reasons, and they were mostly from Lika, Bosnia-Herzegovina and Montenegro; only at the end of this and in the subsequent waves was there a large number of emigrants from Serbia. Most of them under-educated or even illiterate and without knowledge of the English language, they usually found employment as factory workers or poorly paid laborers. The second wave consisted of emigrants who came after World War Two, mostly until 1960, as political emigres or displaced persons. The third wave, consisting of economic emigrants, began in 1960 and is not yet over. The socioeconomic status of the emigrants of the last two waves has been much more favorable because of a greater share of skilled workers. (The third wave has also been characterized by a much higher proportion of highly Skilled workers.) Since now they are coming to Chicago with professional experience, as soon as they learn the language, they begin to advance. On coming to Chicago, the first emigrants were faced with a new environment whose language, customs and habits were something altogether new to them. Besides, their adaptation to the new conditions of life was often accompanied by intolerance on the part of the members of groups which had emigrated earlier and by the unhospitability of American society. Therefore the old emigrants founded their colonies and institutions (parishes, relief societies, Serbian schools, choirs, e ts ...) in poor districts of the city. The emigrants of the subsequent waves, especially the third, usually settled in colonies whose breakup began at the time of their coming to Chicago, but they remained active in the old emigrant organizations or founded new ones, more suited to their needs. The emigrants’ families and organizations have formed an emigrant community, to an extent isolated from the rest of American society, in which our emigrants are still largely leading their private and public lives. Different times of emigration and differences in the socioeconomic status of the emigrants and generations have reflected on the status of their descendants in American society, and still more on the preservation of their ethnic identity, so that the members of the second generation can be divided into two types: the first type includes the descendants of the first-wave emigrants; and the second type, the post-World War Two emigrants. As a satisfactory definition of ethnic identity must include both its subjective and objective aspects and also have a symbolic character, in this paper we shall take ethnic identity to denote group identity which the members of a group form on the basis of a series of symbolic notions about their common characteristics, and/or which is formed by others who identify them as members of a group on the basis of these notions. Ethnic identity is formed and manifested through a series of ethnic symbols. Their basic function is to express the Serbian communal spirit. In addition to this marking role, they also have a differentiating role.. They separate our emigrants from the majority of the American population, which includes not only the white Anglo-Saxon Protestants but also all other ethnic groups in the city. We have grouped the ethnic symbols into two large symbolic systems: the verbal (language and personal and family names) and the nonverbal (religion, music, food and decorative objects). We have analyzed each of these symbols separately, with an intention of showing how it is used and how it changes and functions in the lives of the emigrants of different generations, waves and types. The first generation has, as expected, preserved its ethnic characteristics and is manifesting them more or less visibly both in the emigrant community and in American society at large. The second generation has lost some of the ethnic symbols, such as language, which has led some researchers to conclude that the second and, especially, the third generations have been largely assimilated. Ethnic identity, however, is based on a number of ethnic symbols, and loss of one of them does not entail loss of ethnic identify because its function can be taken over by other symbols. The later generations of Serbs in Chicago are cherishing symbols of their ethnic identity best suited to their needs and the conditions of their life (mostly nonverbal symbols). Apart from generational affiliation, the preservation of ethnic identity is affected by a series of other factors. On the one hand, there are emigrant-community factors (type of migration, type of colony, participation in ethnic organizations), which along with the contact with the homeland are contributing to the preservation of ethnic identity. On the other hand, American-society factors (naturalization, immigration policy, school system, social mobility) are contributing to the disappearance of ethnic identity. The opposite effects of the emigrant community and American society are giving rise, especially among the members of the second generation, to dual identity, which is symbolically manifested in the cherishing of both Serbian and American symbols, even simultaneously. The third generation, however, is characterized by an increased interest in the elements of the traditional culture of their ancestors. This is a generation most affected by the cultural pluralism and ethnic revival movement of the 1970s. Today the activities of various ethnic organizations in Chicago already cover the fourth and fifth generations of our emigrants, so that it is very likely that, although now being school-age children, they will preserve other ethnic characteristics besides the awareness of their ethnic origin. The emigration of Serbs to Chicago still continues, contributing to the constant revival of Serbian ethnic elements. Therefore we can assume that the Serbian ethnic group in Chicago will not completely disappear in the foreseeable future and that lit will preserve ethnic characteristics best suited to the needs of the emigrants and the conditions of the life in the multi-ethnic environment of Chicago.

Christian Theology and Religion --- History --- Anthropology --- Social Sciences --- Recent History (1900 till today) --- Theology and Religion --- Cultural Anthropology / Ethnology --- Demography and human biology --- Eastern Orthodoxy --- Migration Studies --- Ethnic Minorities Studies --- Identity of Collectives --- Chicago (Ill.) --- Emigration and immigration