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Rare earths --- Rare earth industry --- Electronic industries --- Supply and demand.

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Steels and their heat treatment are still very important in modern industry because most industrial components are made from these materials. The proper choice of steel grades along with their suitable processing makes it possible to reduce the weight of the components, which is closely related to energy and fuel savings. This has decisive importance in branches such as the automotive, transport, consumer industries. A great number of novel heat- and surface-treatment techniques have been developed over the past three decades. These techniques involve, for example, vacuum treatment, sub-zero treatment, laser/electron beam surface hardening and alloying, low-pressure carburizing and nitriding, and physical vapour deposition. This Special Issue contains a collection of original research articles on not only advanced heat-treatment techniques—carburizing and sub-zero treatments—but also on the microstructure–property relationships in different ferrous alloys.

History of engineering & technology --- Vanadis 6 die steel --- surface finish --- nitriding --- PVD coating --- toughness --- fractography --- cryogenic treatment --- cryo-treatment --- mechanical properties --- microstructure --- cryo-processing --- 20Cr2Ni4A --- vacuum carburizing --- ion implantation --- rare earths --- catalysis --- carbon diffusion --- vanadis 6 steel --- sub-zero treatment at −75 °C --- hardness --- fracture toughness --- grade 92 steel weldment --- post-welding heat treatment --- tensile straining --- hydrogen embrittlement --- metallography and fractography --- ledeburitic tool steels --- carburizing --- rare-earth element pre-implantation --- sub-zero treatments

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Since its first observation in 1850, ion-exchange (IEx) has become a fundamental process in many applications involving water treatment, catalysis, chromatography, and the food and pharmaceutical industries. Starting from the early 1900s, another relevant application of IEx has been in the glass industry, with the surface tempering of glass produced by a K+–Na+ ion exchange. Nowadays, photonics has greatly exploited IEx technology: graded-index microlenses, graded-index fibers and integrated optical waveguides and devices are examples of achievements made possible by the IEx process. Moreover, ion-exchange is possible in ferroelectric crystals, too, and has been fundamental for the development of many linear and nonlinear integrated optical devices in lithium niobate and tantalate.This volume collects articles published in the corresponding Special Issue of the Applied Sciences journal. Four review articles, written by internationally renowned experts in this field, provide complementary overviews of the history, fundamental aspects, designs and fabrications of devices, and technological achievements. Three articles describe original research in the fields of diffraction grating, photo-thermo-refractive glasses, and Yb-doped lithium niobate. This volume constitutes a valuable and updated reference for all students and researchers wishing to improve their knowledge and/or make use of ion-exchange technology and its applications.

Research & information: general --- thermal diffusion --- active waveguide devices --- laser active materials --- ion-exchange --- phase gratings --- diffractive optics --- ion exchange --- silver --- photo-thermo-refractive glass --- silver nanoparticles --- silver molecular clusters --- silver bromide nanocrystals --- integrated photonics --- glass photonics --- optical sensors --- waveguides --- lasers --- optical glasses --- glass strengthening --- noble metal nanoparticles --- rare earths --- luminescence enhancement --- SERS --- flexible photonics --- whispering gallery mode microresonators --- photovoltaic cell --- ion exchange in glass --- ion diffusion --- glass waveguides --- glass poling --- metal nanoparticles --- ion-exchanged glass --- active optical waveguides --- quantum integrated optics

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Since its first observation in 1850, ion-exchange (IEx) has become a fundamental process in many applications involving water treatment, catalysis, chromatography, and the food and pharmaceutical industries. Starting from the early 1900s, another relevant application of IEx has been in the glass industry, with the surface tempering of glass produced by a K+–Na+ ion exchange. Nowadays, photonics has greatly exploited IEx technology: graded-index microlenses, graded-index fibers and integrated optical waveguides and devices are examples of achievements made possible by the IEx process. Moreover, ion-exchange is possible in ferroelectric crystals, too, and has been fundamental for the development of many linear and nonlinear integrated optical devices in lithium niobate and tantalate.This volume collects articles published in the corresponding Special Issue of the Applied Sciences journal. Four review articles, written by internationally renowned experts in this field, provide complementary overviews of the history, fundamental aspects, designs and fabrications of devices, and technological achievements. Three articles describe original research in the fields of diffraction grating, photo-thermo-refractive glasses, and Yb-doped lithium niobate. This volume constitutes a valuable and updated reference for all students and researchers wishing to improve their knowledge and/or make use of ion-exchange technology and its applications.

thermal diffusion --- active waveguide devices --- laser active materials --- ion-exchange --- phase gratings --- diffractive optics --- ion exchange --- silver --- photo-thermo-refractive glass --- silver nanoparticles --- silver molecular clusters --- silver bromide nanocrystals --- integrated photonics --- glass photonics --- optical sensors --- waveguides --- lasers --- optical glasses --- glass strengthening --- noble metal nanoparticles --- rare earths --- luminescence enhancement --- SERS --- flexible photonics --- whispering gallery mode microresonators --- photovoltaic cell --- ion exchange in glass --- ion diffusion --- glass waveguides --- glass poling --- metal nanoparticles --- ion-exchanged glass --- active optical waveguides --- quantum integrated optics

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The proposed book is a compilation of a Special Issue on “Leaching of Rare Earth Elements from Various Sources”, published in the journal Minerals in 2020. There are 10 papers contributed by experts in the area, and these can be grouped into four categories: leaching from low-grade ores including coal, clay, soil, and red mud; pre-treatment and leaching; recycling; and precipitation and nano-hydrometallurgy. Although these articles are available in the journal Minerals, it is convenient to compile the most valuable information into a book form so that scholars and industrial practitioners can have easy access to it when they need it where the Internet is not easily available. I strongly believe that the book on a very specialized topic matter such as modern extraction technologies of rare earth elements will contribute greatly to the fast-growing industry that needs rare earth elements.

Technology: general issues --- precipitation --- leaching --- complexation --- anion effect --- equilibrium calculation --- rare earth elements --- magnets --- recycling --- recovery --- fluorides --- modelling --- clay minerals --- grain size characteristics --- in situ leaching --- simulated leaching --- ion-absorbed type rare earth ore --- coal --- acid mine drainage --- coal combustion byproducts --- kinetics --- apparent activation energy --- rare-earth elements --- scandium --- alumina production --- sinter processes --- red mud --- electrostatic precipitation dust --- alkali leaching --- lanthanide separation --- magnetic nanohydrometallurgy --- complexing nanoparticles --- magnetic nanoparticles --- magnetophoresis --- monazite processing --- urban mining --- REE --- sulfuric acid baking --- caustic digestion --- acid leaching --- water leaching --- coal utilization byproducts --- pregnant leach solution --- underclay --- organic acid --- rare earths --- distribution factor --- selective precipitation --- oxalates --- organic complexes