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This study documents the labor market outcomes and time-use patterns of women in urban Bangladesh. Using survey data collected in 2018 in low-income neighborhoods of Dhaka, the paper finds that women with children aged 0-5 years have lower likelihood of labor market participation, lower likelihood of working, and lower likelihood of being an earner, compared to women with no children and women with children aged 6 years or older. While this motherhood penalty affects all mothers, those who have young children but have no access to childcare support face the largest penalty. Time-use patterns confirm these findings, indicating that mothers of young children with no access to childcare spend less time on market work, more time on unpaid work, and less time on leisure or other activities. In addition, they are more likely to perform childcare as a secondary activity along with other paid and unpaid work, which may have implications for their productivity and the quality of care provided to children. The paper proposes entry points to ease the double burden of paid and unpaid care work on mothers in urban areas, where the availability and affordability of formal childcare services is low, and community-based or other informal care arrangements are not common.

Access of Poor To Social Services --- Childcare --- Female Labor Force Participation --- Gender --- Gender and Development --- Inequality --- Labor Market --- Labor Policies --- Poverty Reduction --- Secondary Childcare --- Social Development --- Social Inclusion and Institutions --- Time Use

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This paper studies gender education gaps among indigenous and nonindigenous groups in Bolivia. Using the National Census of Population and Housing 2012 and an estimation method analogous to difference-in-differences, the paper finds that the intersection of gender and indigenous identity confers cumulative disadvantage for indigenous women in literacy, years of schooling, and primary and secondary school completion. Although gender education gaps have become narrower across generations, there remain significant differences among indigenous groups. The Aymara have the largest gender gap in all outcomes, despite having high overall attainment rates and mostly residing in urban centers, with greater physical access to schools. The Quechua have relatively smaller gender gaps, but these are accompanied by lower attainment levels. The paper discusses the possible sources of these differentials and highlights the importance of taking gender dynamics within each indigenous group into greater consideration.

Access & equity in basic education --- Education --- Education for all --- Gender --- Gender & education --- Health, nutrition and population --- Indigenous --- Intersectionality --- Population policies --- Primary education

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Public spaces can be an instrument to increase social cohesion, yet they are often underutilized. This paper presents findings from a randomized virtual reality experiment with more than 2,000 participants in Karachi, Pakistan. The paper investigates the relationship between urban design, willingness to use public spaces, and social cohesion. The findings show that exposure to a two-and-a-half-minute-long virtual reality experience featuring various urban design and social diversity elements has a statistically significant impact. In particular, improvements in the design of a public park through the virtual reality experience increased the park's perceived attractiveness and participants' willingness to use it. Exposure to diverse social groups in the virtual reality experience, by itself, had mixed impacts on social cohesion indicators such as trust and perception of and willingness to interact with outgroups. The impacts varied by ethnic affiliation, income, sex, and education level. This may be partly explained by the segregated nature of Karachi and the high prevalence of mistrust of outgroups. The paper illustrates how modern technology can be used as an effective, low-cost tool for diagnosing social phenomena, soliciting feedback about urban interventions for inclusive design, and promoting social contact.

Behavior --- Diversity --- Public Space --- Social Cohesion --- Social Contact --- Social Inclusion and Institutions --- Urban Design --- Urban Economic Development --- Virtual Reality