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At the request of the Central Bank of Myanmar (CBM), the IMF's Monetary and Capital Markets Department, visited Yangon for a series of missions in 2018 and early 2019 on banking supervision. The objectives of the work were to support the CBM in the development of bank regulation and supervision, its introduction of a more risk-based approach to supervision. The Guide to Risk-Based Supervision sets out approaches to risk assessment and risk mitigation based on international practices. The key risks identified in the Myanmar context include legal, regulatory and reputational risk, strategic risk and group and related parties' risk as well as credit, market, operational, and liquidity risks. The CBM is implementing the new approach over the period until 2020. While perfecting a complete risk-based approach will take years, the CBM is committed to implementation and is already undertaking risk assessments using the new risk matrix tool as examinations come due.
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"The authors explore the relationship between transaction costs and generalized trust. Using panel data from 2,100 households in 135 rural communities of the Philippines, the paper shows that where transaction costs are reduced (proxied by road construction), there is an increase in generalized trust. Consistent with the argument that generalized trust is built through repeated interactions, the authors find that the individuals most likely to engage in exchange exhibit an increase in trust after road construction. These results suggest that, rather than being an input to economic growth, trust might be a product of reduced transaction costs (which also favors growth). "--World Bank web site.
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At the request of the Central Bank of Myanmar (CBM), the IMF's Monetary and Capital Markets Department, visited Yangon for a series of missions in 2018 and early 2019 on banking supervision. The objectives of the work were to support the CBM in the development of bank regulation and supervision, its introduction of a more risk-based approach to supervision. The Guide to Risk-Based Supervision sets out approaches to risk assessment and risk mitigation based on international practices. The key risks identified in the Myanmar context include legal, regulatory and reputational risk, strategic risk and group and related parties' risk as well as credit, market, operational, and liquidity risks. The CBM is implementing the new approach over the period until 2020. While perfecting a complete risk-based approach will take years, the CBM is committed to implementation and is already undertaking risk assessments using the new risk matrix tool as examinations come due.
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"The authors explore the relationship between transaction costs and generalized trust. Using panel data from 2,100 households in 135 rural communities of the Philippines, the paper shows that where transaction costs are reduced (proxied by road construction), there is an increase in generalized trust. Consistent with the argument that generalized trust is built through repeated interactions, the authors find that the individuals most likely to engage in exchange exhibit an increase in trust after road construction. These results suggest that, rather than being an input to economic growth, trust might be a product of reduced transaction costs (which also favors growth). "--World Bank web site.
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To what extent are personal trust, mutual interests, and third parties important in enforcing agreements to trade How do firms combine these to form transactional governance structures This paper answers these questions in a whole-economy, cross-country setting that considers a full spectrum of transactional-governance strategies. The data collection requires a new survey question answerable in any context. The question is applied in six South American countries using representative samples, with the resultant survey weights facilitating a whole-economy analysis. Without imposing an a priori model, latent class analysis estimates meaningful governance structures. Bilateralism is always used. Law is never used alone. Bilateralism and formal institutions are rarely substitutes. Within country, inter-regional variation in governance is greater than inter-country variation. The usefulness of the data is shown by testing one element of Williamson's discriminating-alignment agenda: greater uncertainty in the transactional environment increases the involvement of third parties.
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May 1995 How does an economy's efficiency in financial transactions affect its efficiency in physical production? And how does the volume of financial transactions relate to the level of real activity? There is a close, if imperfect, relationship between the effectiveness of an economy's capital markets and its level (or rate of growth) of real development. This may be because financial markets provide liquidity, promote the sharing of information, or permit agents to specialize. There is literature about how these functions help increase real activity, but surprisingly little literature predicting how the volume of activity in financial markets relates to the level or efficiency of an economy's productive activity. Bencivenga, Smith, and Starr address this question: How does the efficiency of an economy's equity market -- as measured by transaction costs -- affect its efficiency in producing physical capital and, through this channel, final goods and services? The answer: As the efficiency of an economy's capital markets increases (that is, as the transaction costs fall), the general effect is to cause agents to make longer-term -- hence, more transaction-intensive -- investments. The result is a higher rate of return on savings and a change in its composition. These general equilibrium effects on the composition of savings cause agents to hold more of their wealth in the form of existing equity claims and to invest less in the initiation of new capital investments. As a result, a reduction in transaction costs can cause the capital stock either to rise or fall (under scenarios described in the paper). Further, a reduction in transaction costs will typically alter the composition of savings and investment, and any analysis of the consequences of such changes must take those effects into account. This paper -- a product of the Finance and Private Sector Development Division, Policy Research Department -- was prepared for a World Bank Conference on Stock Markets, Corporate Finance, and Economic Growth. The study was funded by the Bank's Research Support Budget under the research project Stock Market Development and Financial Intermediary Growth (RPO 679-53).
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The theory of costs is a cornerstone of economic thinking, and it plays a vital role in the study of human action and society. From the first day of a principles-level course to the most advanced academic literature, costs play a vital role in virtually all behaviors and economic outcomes. How we make choices, why we trade, and how we build institutions and social orders are all problems that can be explained in light of the costs we face. This volume explores, develops, and critiques the rich literature on costs, examining the many roles cost plays in economic theory and practice. The book especially studies costs from the perspective of the Austrian or "causal-realist" approach to economics. The chapters integrate historical work with contemporary research, finding valuable crossroads between numerous traditions in economics. They examine the role of costs in theories of choice and opportunity costs; demand and income effects; production and distribution; risk and interest rates; uncertainty and production; monopsony; Post-Keynesianism; transaction costs; socialism and management; and social entrepreneurship. Together, these essays represent an update and restatement of a central element in the economic way of thinking. Each chapter reveals how the Austrian, causal-realist approach to thinking about costs can be used to solve an important problem or debate in economics. These chapters are not only useful for students learning these concepts for the first time: they are also valuable for researchers seeking to understand the unique Austrian perspective and those who want to apply it to new problems.
Cost. --- Transaction costs. --- Value.
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This book examines the role of local food movements, enterprises and networks in the transformation of the currently unsustainable global food system. It explores a series of innovations designed to re-integrate sustainable modes of food production and encourage food sovereignty. It provides detailed insights into a specialised network of social actors collaborating in novel ways and creating new economic arrangements across different geographical locales. In working to devise 'local solutions to global problems', the initiatives explored in the book represent a 'second generation' food social movement which is less preoccupied with distinctive local qualities than with building socially just food systems aimed at delivering healthy nutrition worldwide. Drawing on fieldwork undertaken in sites across Europe, the USA, and Brazil, the book provides a rich collection of case studies that offer a fresh perspective on the role of grassroots action in the transition to more sustainable food production systems. Addressing a substantive gap in the literature that falls between global analyses of the contemporary food system and highly localised case studies, the book will appeal to those teaching food studies and those conducting research on civic food initiatives or on environmental social movements more generally.
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