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This paper provides the first empirical examination of the impact of federal and state "Pattern-or-Practice" investigations on crime and policing. For investigations that were not preceded by "viral" incidents of deadly force, investigations, on average, led to a statistically significant reduction in homicides and total crime. In stark contrast, all investigations that were preceded by "viral" incidents of deadly force have led to a large and statistically significant increase in homicides and total crime. We estimate that these investigations caused almost 900 excess homicides and almost 34,000 excess felonies. The leading hypothesis for why these investigations increase homicides and total crime is an abrupt change in the quantity of policing activity. In Chicago, the number of police-civilian interactions decreased by almost 90% in the month after the investigation was announced. In Riverside CA, interactions decreased 54%. In St. Louis, self-initiated police activities declined by 46%. Other theories we test such as changes in community trust or the aggressiveness of consent decrees associated with investigations -- all contradict the data in important ways.

General --- Economics of Minorities, Races, Indigenous Peoples, and Immigrants • Non-labor Discrimination --- Economics

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This paper considers various dimensions and sources of gender inequality and presents policies and best practices to address these. With women accounting for fifty percent of the global population, inclusive growth can only be achieved if it promotes gender equality. Despite recent progress, gender gaps remain across all stages of life, including before birth, and negatively impact health, education, and economic outcomes for women. The roadmap to gender equality has to rely on legal framework reforms, policies to promote equal access, and efforts to tackle entrenched social norms. These need to be set in the context of arising new trends such as digitalization, climate change, as well as shocks such as pandemics.

Women''s Studies' --- Gender Studies --- Wage Level and Structure --- Wage Differentials --- Wages, Compensation, and Labor Costs: Public Policy --- Mobility, Unemployment, and Vacancies: Public Policy --- Labor Discrimination --- Economic Development: Human Resources --- Human Development --- Income Distribution --- Migration --- Technological Change: Choices and Consequences --- Diffusion Processes --- Economics of Gender --- Non-labor Discrimination --- Health: General --- Education: General --- Gender studies --- women & girls --- Social discrimination & equal treatment --- Gender studies, gender groups --- Health economics --- Education --- Women --- Gender inequality --- Gender --- Health --- Sex discrimination --- Sex role --- India --- Sex discrimination in employment. --- Economic development. --- Gender equality. --- Women''s Studies'. --- Gender Studies. --- Wage Level and Structure. --- Wage Differentials. --- Wages, Compensation, and Labor Costs: Public Policy. --- Mobility, Unemployment, and Vacancies: Public Policy. --- Labor Discrimination. --- Economic Development: Human Resources. --- Human Development. --- Income Distribution. --- Migration. --- Technological Change: Choices and Consequences. --- Diffusion Processes. --- Economics of Gender. --- Non-labor Discrimination. --- Health: General. --- Education: General. --- women & girls. --- Social discrimination & equal treatment. --- Gender studies, gender groups. --- Health economics. --- Education. --- Women. --- Gender inequality. --- Gender. --- Health. --- Sex discrimination. --- Sex role. --- India. --- Women in development.

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This paper shows that during the 1990s, and before the 1998-2000 border war with Eritrea, the gender gap in education in Eritrea has widened on the national level, and large regional disparities have persisted. The gender gap appears to be linked to lower female teacher participation and limited employment opportunities. The widening of the gender gap is likely to have a long-term negative impact on both economic growth and poverty reduction.

Labor --- Women''s Studies' --- Gender Studies --- Labor Discrimination --- Education: Government Policy --- Welfare and Poverty: Other --- Education: General --- Economics of Gender --- Non-labor Discrimination --- Human Capital --- Skills --- Occupational Choice --- Labor Productivity --- Employment --- Unemployment --- Wages --- Intergenerational Income Distribution --- Aggregate Human Capital --- Aggregate Labor Productivity --- Health: General --- Education --- Gender studies --- women & girls --- Social discrimination & equal treatment --- Labour --- income economics --- Health economics --- Women --- Gender inequality --- Human capital --- Gender --- Health --- Sex discrimination --- Economic theory --- Eritrea, The State of

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Both Japan and Korea are trying to boost female labor force participation (FLFP) as they face the challenges of a rapidly aging population. Though FLFP has generally been on a rising trend, the female labor force in both countries is skewed towards non-regular employment despite women’s high education levels. This paper empirically examines what helps Japan and Korea to increase FLFP by type (i.e., regular vs. non-regular employment), using the SVAR model. In so doing, we compare these two Asian countries with two Nordic countries Norway and Finland. The main findings are: (i) child cash allowances tend to reduce the proportion of regular female employment in Japan and Korea, (ii) the persistent gender wage gap encourages more non-regular employment, (iii) a greater proportion of regular female employment is associated with higher fertility, and (iv) there is a need for more public spending on childcare for age 6-11 in Japan and Korea to help women continue to work.

Labor supply -- Japan. --- Unemployed -- Japan. --- Women --Employment -- Japan. --- Labor --- Macroeconomics --- Women''s Studies' --- Gender Studies --- Labor Economics Policies --- Fertility --- Family Planning --- Child Care --- Children --- Youth --- Economics of Gender --- Non-labor Discrimination --- Labor Force and Employment, Size, and Structure --- Labor Discrimination --- Employment --- Unemployment --- Wages --- Intergenerational Income Distribution --- Aggregate Human Capital --- Aggregate Labor Productivity --- Labor Economics: General --- Labour --- income economics --- Gender studies --- women & girls --- Social discrimination & equal treatment --- Women --- Gender inequality --- Labor force --- Gender --- Economic theory --- Sex discrimination --- Labor economics --- Labor market --- Japan

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The labor structure in sub-Saharan Africa is characterized by a high share of informal employment in the rural agricultural sector. The impact of COVID-19 on female employment may not appear to be large as the share of such employment is particularly high among women. Nevertheless, widespread income reduction was observed both in rural and urban households. This could worsen the opportunities for women as husbands’ control over the household resource is the norm. The paper also finds that rural children struggled to continue learning during school closures. Gender-sensitive policies are needed to narrow the gap during and post-pandemic.

Women''s Studies' --- Labor --- Diseases: Contagious --- Macroeconomics --- Particular Labor Markets: General --- Education: General --- Labor Discrimination: General --- Urban, Rural, and Regional Economics: Household Analysis: General --- Economics of Gender --- Non-labor Discrimination --- Employment --- Unemployment --- Wages --- Intergenerational Income Distribution --- Aggregate Human Capital --- Aggregate Labor Productivity --- Health Behavior --- Aggregate Factor Income Distribution --- Gender studies --- women & girls --- Labour --- income economics --- Education --- Infectious & contagious diseases --- Women --- Gender --- COVID-19 --- Health --- Income --- National accounts --- Currency crises --- Informal sector --- Economics --- Economic theory --- Communicable diseases --- Nigeria