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The world is witnessing a sudden growth in production of biofuels, especially those suited for replacing oil like ethanol and biodiesel. This paper synthesizes what the environmental, economic, and policy literature predicts about the possible effects of these types of biofuels. Another motivation is to identify gaps in understanding and recommend areas for future work. The analysis finds three key conclusions. First, the current generation of biofuels, which is derived from food crops, is intensive in land, water, energy, and chemical inputs. Second, the environmental literature is dominated by a discussion of net carbon offset and net energy gain, while indicators relating to impact on human health, soil quality, biodiversity, water depletion, et cetera, have received much less attention. Third, there is a fast expanding economic and policy literature that analyzes the various effects of biofuels from both micro and macro perspectives, but there are several gaps. A bewildering array of policies - including energy, transportation, agricultural, trade, and environmental policies - is influencing the evolution of biofuels. But the policies and the level of subsidies do not reflect the marginal impact on welfare or the environment. In summary, all biofuels are not created equal. They exhibit considerable spatial and temporal heterogeneity in production. The impact of biofuels will also be heterogeneous, creating winners and losers. The findings of the paper suggest the importance of the role biomass plays in rural areas of developing countries. Furthermore, the use of biomass for producing fuel for cars can affect access to energy and fodder and not just access to food.

Access to energy --- Biomass --- Carbon offset --- Climate change --- Energy --- Energy and Environment --- Energy Production and Transportation --- Environment --- Environmental Economics and Policies --- Ethanol --- Fuel --- Generation --- Oil --- Primary energy --- Primary energy supply --- Renewable Energy --- Transport --- Transport Economics, Policy and Planning

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Engineering geology --- Power resources --- Energy development --- Engineering geology. --- Power resources. --- Geology --- Energy-Generating Resources --- Technological innovations --- Environmental aspects --- Technological innovations. --- Environmental aspects. --- Primary Energy Resource --- Primary Energy Resources --- Secondary Energy Resources --- Energy Generating Resources --- Energy Resource, Primary --- Energy Resource, Secondary --- Energy Resources, Primary --- Energy Resources, Secondary --- Energy-Generating Resource --- Resource, Energy-Generating --- Resource, Primary Energy --- Resource, Secondary Energy --- Resources, Energy-Generating --- Resources, Primary Energy --- Resources, Secondary Energy --- Secondary Energy Resource --- Energy --- Energy resources --- Power supply --- Engineering --- Energy resources development --- Energy source development --- Power resources development --- Electric Power Supplies --- Natural resources --- Energy harvesting --- Energy industries --- Civil engineering --- Geology, Economic --- Civil Engineering --- Environmental protection. Environmental technology --- Engineering sciences. Technology --- Geology. --- Energy-Generating Resources.

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This paper sheds light on an implicit dimension of the climate policy debate: the extent to which supply-side response (emission-reducing energy technologies) may substitute for the transformation of consumption behavior and thus help get around the political difficulties surrounding such behavioral transformation. The paper performs a meta-review of long-term energy forecasts since the end of the 1960s in order to put in perspective the controversies around technological optimism about the potential for cheap, large-scale, carbon-free energy production. This retrospective analysis encompasses 116 scenarios conducted over 36 years and analyzes their predictions for a) fossil fuels, b) nuclear energy, and c) renewable energy. The analysis demonstrates how the predicted relative shares of these three types of energy have evolved since 1970, for two cases: a) predicted shares in 2010, which shows how the initial outlooks for the 2000-2010 period have been revised as a function of observed trends; and b) predicted shares for t+30, which shows how these revisions have affected medium-term prospects. The analysis shows a decrease, since 1970, in technological optimism about switching away from fossil fuels; this decrease is unsurprisingly correlated with a decline in modelers' beliefs in the suitability of nuclear energy. But, after a trend of increasing optimism, a declining trend also characterizes renewable energies in the 1980s and 1990s before a slight revival of technological optimism about renewables in the aftermath of Kyoto.

Biomass --- Climate change --- Climate Change Mitigation and Green House Gases --- Climate change Policy --- Coal --- Emission --- Energy --- Energy and Environment --- Energy Demand --- Energy production --- Energy Production and Transportation --- Energy sources --- Energy supply --- Environment --- Environment and Energy Efficiency --- Fossil --- Fossil fuels --- Free energy --- Gas --- Generation --- Nuclear energy --- Oil --- Primary energy --- Primary energy supply --- Renewable energies --- Renewable energy --- Wind

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Power resources --- Renewable energy sources --- Energy policy --- Ressources énergétiques. --- Politique énergétique. --- Power resources. --- Renewable energy sources. --- Environmental aspects --- Environmental aspects. --- Engineering --- Environmental Sciences --- Physics --- Environmental Engineering --- Mechanical Engineering --- General and Others --- Energy --- Energie --- Umwelt --- Zeitschrift --- Periodikum --- Zeitschriften --- Alternate energy sources --- Alternative energy sources --- Energy sources, Renewable --- Sustainable energy sources --- Energy resources --- Power supply --- Energy and state --- State and energy --- Government policy --- Presse --- Fortlaufendes Sammelwerk --- Renewable natural resources --- Agriculture and energy --- Natural resources --- Energy harvesting --- Energy industries --- Industrial policy --- Energy conservation --- Journal --- Periodicals --- E-journals --- Energy policy. --- Energy-Generating Resources --- Ressources énergétiques --- Énergies renouvelables --- Politique énergétique --- energy resources. --- Aspect de l'environnement --- Primary Energy Resource --- Primary Energy Resources --- Secondary Energy Resources --- Energy Generating Resources --- Energy Resource, Primary --- Energy Resource, Secondary --- Energy Resources, Primary --- Energy Resources, Secondary --- Energy-Generating Resource --- Resource, Energy-Generating --- Resource, Primary Energy --- Resource, Secondary Energy --- Resources, Energy-Generating --- Resources, Primary Energy --- Resources, Secondary Energy --- Secondary Energy Resource --- Electric Power Supplies --- Law and legislation --- Political aspects

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Biofuels --- Biological Products --- Biotechnology --- Energy-Generating Resources --- Primary Energy Resource --- Primary Energy Resources --- Secondary Energy Resources --- Energy Generating Resources --- Energy Resource, Primary --- Energy Resource, Secondary --- Energy Resources, Primary --- Energy Resources, Secondary --- Energy-Generating Resource --- Resource, Energy-Generating --- Resource, Primary Energy --- Resource, Secondary Energy --- Resources, Energy-Generating --- Resources, Primary Energy --- Resources, Secondary Energy --- Secondary Energy Resource --- Electric Power Supplies --- Biotechnologies --- Biologic Drugs --- Biologic Medicines --- Biologic Pharmaceuticals --- Biologic Products --- Biological Drugs --- Biological Medicines --- Biologicals --- Biopharmaceuticals --- Products, Biological --- Biologic --- Biologic Drug --- Biologic Product --- Biological --- Biological Drug --- Biological Medicine --- Biological Product --- Biologics --- Biopharmaceutical --- Natural Product --- Natural Products --- Drug, Biologic --- Drug, Biological --- Drugs, Biologic --- Drugs, Biological --- Medicine, Biological --- Medicines, Biologic --- Medicines, Biological --- Pharmaceuticals, Biologic --- Product, Biologic --- Product, Biological --- Product, Natural --- Biological Factors --- Biodiesel --- Biofuel --- Biofuel Oils --- Biogas --- Biodiesels --- Biofuel Oil --- Oil, Biofuel --- Oils, Biofuel --- Power resources. --- Biotechnologie. --- Ressources énergétiques. --- bioengineering. --- energy resources. --- Energy --- Energy resources --- Power supply --- Natural resources --- Energy harvesting --- Energy industries --- Biofuels. --- Biological products. --- Biotechnology.